We are the Hahn Lee Family, Korean immigrants, descendants of Korean immigrants,
We hope this story helps inspire you to find YOUR ancestors.
We will tell you about two families that left their country in search of a better life, far from the Japanese occupation and poverty, trying to keep their children alive. If not for their bravery and resilience, we would not exist.
Let's begin the journey...
How Korea Went From Having Chinese Overlords to Japanese Invaders
King Gojong (1852-1919) was the last king of the Joseon Dynasty. He declared Korea an empire in October of 1897, partly to justify the country’s ending of its traditional tributary subordination to China. In 1902, Gojong granted Koreans the right to live and work abroad, which was illegal before that time. Watch this wonderful video to learn how this was at the root of why our ancestors had to leave their homeland.
The 1997 Korean movie HENEQUEN
set in 1905, tells the story of the life of Korean henequen laborers in Mexico.
It follows the relationship between the daughter of an impoverished aristocratic family and the son of a butcher. (Director: Kim Ho-sun)
The Korean peninsula suffered difficult economic times in 1901 and typhoid and cholera outbreaks in 1902. These challenges were significant push factors for Korean emigration from a country that had been suffering from bad harvests, drought, and years of political threats from China, Russia, and Japan. With Japan being the victor in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), Korea was about to become a protectorate of Japan and once again faced Japanese rule. For many Koreans looking for a better life, Mexico must have seemed like the chance of a life time.
WHY DID YOUR GREAT-GRANDPARENTS AND MINE HAVE TO LEAVE THEIR COUNTRY?
Henequen is a cactus-like plant whose fiber was used to make various products (rope, rugs, etc.) during the first half of the 1900s. In order to meet the growing demand for the fiber produced by these tall thorny plants, plantation owners sought foreign labor. When they were unable to recruit European workers, they hired an immigration agent named John G. Myers and a Japanese businessman, Genichi Taisho to find laborers in China, Japan and, later, in Korea.
Meyers specifically singled-out Korea for laborers since the Japanese had vested interests in diverting the Korean labor force away from the profitable agrarian jobs in Hawaii, which the Empire wanted to keep in the hands of Japanese subjects abroad. A variety of individuals responded to his call, mainly from the Seoul area, as high wages, the promise of a high quality of life in Mexico (promoted as equal to that of the United States), and the ability to immigrate with their family members drew them in. A French minister issued their passports even though King Gojong had delegated overseas emigration matters to American entrepreneur David W. Deshler in 1902.
The S.S. Ilford brought more than 1,000 Koreans
to Mexico on April 4, 1905
On April 4, 1905, 1,033 Koreans (702 men, 135 women, 196 children) left Chemulpo harbor (present day Incheon) via the British merchant ship Ilford. The ship arrived at the port of Salina Cruz in southern Mexico on 15 May, 1905. Of 1033 Koreans who had sailed from Incheon, 1031 made it to Mexico, two boys had died during the journey.
From there they took a train to Veracruz and then boarded another ship to Progreso, near Merida. Upon their arrival, the Koreans were sold, divided into 24 work groups and sent to plantations Chence, Buenavista, San Francisco, Santiago, San Antonio and Santa Rosa to work for the next 4 years. This was the first and last Korean immigration to Mexico.
(...) the owners of the plantations required all the workers to live at the hacienda, paid them poorly, and treated them harshly. An adult male was paid 35 cents for 12 to 17 hours of work, (was) beaten if they fell behind their daily quota of henequen leaves (some note 1,000, some figures noted are much higher). To make matters worse, they were forced to buy their food from the henequen owners at exorbitantly high prices. It made saving money almost impossible and left most with debts they had to repay at the end of their 4 year contract period...There are records of at least 10 Korean laborers committing suicide and escape attempts that were met with severe punishments. I think it is safe to use the term “slave labor” to describe what these Korean immigrants faced.
José Sánchez Pac ("Memorias de la vida y obra de los coreanos en México desde Yucatán", 1973, 59), a second-generation Korean descendant, wrote:
"...we, as foreigners, had to move from plantation to plantation, when we landed on a big one, there were many Korean families and so we would have a better life because they also organized temple, school and a store. Usually, we would stay at plantations for about a year or more, but at smaller plantations, it was not possible to have fun amongst ourselves because there were few of us, we tried to have some fun with the natives, being nosy and approaching them at wakes, novenas, baptisms, weddings and sometimes even religious ceremonies where they worshipped a favorite icon."
On November 17, 1905, Ginseng merchant Pak Young Soon sent a letter to the Mutual Assistance Association about the slavery and suffering of Koreans working in Merida plantations. News is sent to Korean newspapers and the Song Dong YMCA launches an investigation in Korea. The same day, the Korean Protectorate Treaty is given to Japan to rule over Korea since it won the war with Russia in Korea. The USA backed Japan in this war.
Shortly after, Japan made the Korean peninsula a protectorate in 1905 and later incorporated Korea as a colony in 1910. Suddenly, the Korean immigrants in Mexico were stateless under their immigration status mentioned above. They were stuck in Mexico, with neither Mexican citizenship nor Korean state protection. Japanese imperial interests blocked diplomatic support for the Korean immigrants.
Korean workers at a Mexican hacienda.
(Courtesy of Fototeca Guerra)
Accomplices in this Crime
Translation of the letters above
First letter
(SEAL OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE AND MINISTRY OF FOREIGN RELATIONS)
Mexico, March 13, 1905
The Minister of Mexico in Japan informs me of the following note number 75 of February 9 of this year:
"I have the honor to forward to you, attached, a clipping from the Japanese newspaper "Asahi", regarding the emigration of Chinese and Koreans to Mexico."
I have the honor to transcribe it for you for your information, including a copy of the translation of the newspaper clipping mentioned and sending kind regards.
(SIGNED BY THE GOVERNOR OF YUCATAN)
Second letter
(SEAL OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE AND MINISTRY OF FOREIGN RELATIONS)
300 families willing to emigrate requested.
Mr. Meyers (Mexican), who is currently at the "Oriental Hotel" in Yokohama, is in negotiations with the "Emigration Company" to gather 300 Korean or Chinese families who, as a test, he is planning to employ in the cultivation of henequén in Yucatan, Mexico. Mr. Meyers has approached the Japanese company to get these foreign emigrants because, in his opinion, since China and Korea have been for the past year under the influence of Japan, the best thing is to handle the matter through the Japanese. It will be very difficult, however, to obtain these Chinese and Koreans who, due to their customs and ancient traditions, have never taken their women to the countries where they have emigrated for work.
When a massive crime is committed, the participation of many accomplices is necessary. When the Minister of Foreign Relations of Korea contacts the Secretary of Foreign Relations of Mexico, the lies begin.
When reports reached the Korean Empire detailing the conditions of slavery at the henequen plantations, the Ministry of Foreign Relations assigned Vice Minister Chi Ho Yoon to travel to Mexico in order to investigate the allegations. However, Japan assumed diplomatic superiority soon after that and Vice Minister Chi Jo Yoon's trip was cancelled. The Korean Empire not only lost its chance to protect this group of immigrants but all future opportunities take control of their diplomatic autonomy.
As the letter from the Mexican Embassy in the United States of America, signed by the ad interim diplomat in charge of business affairs proves, not everyone involved in this crime was an accomplice to what was being done to our ancestors.
Translation of the letter above:
MEXICAN EMBASSY IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Korean Legation
Washington, September 15, 1905
I have the honor to respectfully request that you provide me with the name of the place in Yucatán, where a group of 1014 Koreans, more or less, are located.
I regret to inform you that these Koreans are currently in a situation of abandonment as, as my Government wishes to help them return to their native country, I am hereby requesting the aforementioned information.
Sincerely and respectfully yours,
Yun Chung Kim
ad interim Business Chargé
This is a translation.
Someone in the Ministry of Foreign Relations of Mexico sent a copy of this letter to the Governor of the State of Yucatán (below).
Translation of the letter above:
(SEAL OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE AND MINISTRY OF FOREIGN RELATIONS)
The ad interim Business Chargé of Mexico in Washington, in a note dated 19th of the current month, informs me of the following:
"In two attached documents, I have the honor to send to you a copy and translation of a note from the Business Chargé of Korea, in which he requests to know the place in Yucatán where 1014 Koreans are located, who apparently are living in a precarious situation and whom the Government of Korea wishes to help so they can return to their country.
I have replied to this gentleman that I have sent a copy of his note to this authority and that I would inform him of the reply I receive."
I have the honor to forward this information and its translation of the note mentioned, so that you can inform this Secretariat how we should proceed.
Sincerely Yours,
The Governor of the State of Yucatán
Translation of the letter above:
(SEAL OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE AND MINISTRY OF FOREIGN RELATIONS)
Mexico, August 21, 1905
The Minister of Foreign Relations of the Kingdom of Korea, in a telegram dated 13th of this month, Informs this Secretariat the following:
"We know from an authorized source that more than one thousand Korean subjects who emigrated to Yucatán, and who were believed would be under the protection of that Government. Regardless of the fact that no treaty exists, through letter from Koreans and Chinese residing there, we are concerned to find that they are forced to serve as slaves and are not fed properly. We request that your Government protect their lives and liberties and help them deal with these issues until our government is able to protect them."
This Department replied to the telegram es follows:
"We have received your telegram regarding Korean workers. I can assure you that your information that they have been reduced to slavery, is completely false. If Your Excellency wishes you can contact the Government of Peking where there is an important report on the fact that Asian workers in Yucatán are well treated. The Japanese Legation in this Capital can also send you information in this regard."
I have the honor of forwarding this information to you.
(SIGNED BY THE GOVERNOR OF YUCATAN)
We do not know if the document below was in response to this request, but the lies definitely continued coming. Point V is a marvel of the art of lying.
Point VII is a horror story. They state in point I, that the reports cover 3 plantations: Kancabchen (7 men, 4 women and 8 children), Azcorra (25 men), Santa Cruz (8 men). Point VII indicates that 20 deaths occurred within a very brief period of time from May 1905 when our ancestors arrived in Mexico to November of the same year. There is a clear element in common in all these deaths:
2 due to gastroenteritis
1 gastric fever
1 intestinal fever
1 chronic enteritis
1 entero-colitis
1 colitis
1 dysentery
You don't have to be a genius to see that if so many people were dying of stomach related conditions, something they were eating was hurting them. But, of course, the plantation owners probably thought, "Meh, they're slaves, I can get more as easily as I got these when they start dying out..."
Translation of the report above:
DATA REGARDING THE KOREAN IMMIGRATION IN THE STATE OF YUCATAN, ACCORDING TO THE GOVERNOS OF THE STATE IN HIS MEMO NO. 4966, SENT ON NOVEMBER 6.
I. Total number of Korean coolies. In this district there are Koreans in only three plantations: "Kancabchen" with seven; "Azcorra" with twenty-five and "Santa Cruz" with eight. Total: forty, except for four Korean women and eight children at "Kancabchen".
II. Average pay each Korean receives from the plantation owner. Between 65 and 75 cents per day.
III. Number of hours of daily work. They work between eight and ten hours per day.
IV. Medical status of the coolies. Very good.
V. Treatment they receive from the plantation owners in regard to food, clothing, etc. They buy their own clothing and prepare their own food. They live in houses with very good hygiene conditions, with plots of land and water a short distance away for their cultivation, consequently, the treatment they receive is good.
VI. Living expenses. Most of them spend 25 cents per person on living expenses.
VII. Number of deaths until today and the main cause. From May 15, 1905 to November 6, there have been in this Capital, twenty deaths, according to a memo from the General Director of the Civil Registry; the deaths were, three due to yellow fever, three to tuberculosis, two to gastroenteritis, one to malaria, one to gastric fever, one to intestinal fever, one to chronic enteritis, one to malarial emaciation, one to chronic entero-colitis, one to peri-renal abscess, one to colitis, one to mitral insufficiency, one to syphilis, one to dysentery and one to unknown cause. All these deaths, except for one, happened in the O'Horan Hospital in this city.
A. Name of each plantation. Provided above.
B. Number of immigrants on each plantation. Approximately 1085, of which there are 52 in the district, with 32 day laborers, 4 women, 8 children who appear in "Santa Rosa" plantation work independently as tenants.
A report dated December 16, 1908, states that our great-grandparents, who had just arrived in Mexico, were already dying. In May of 1905, the unnecessary deaths of 20 of our ancestors is reported. Their names are misspelled, but their ages include children 9, 11, 12 and 1 and a half years old. The diseases are mostly related to gastric conditions.
At the end of the document it reads: "In reports obtained from the owners of the plantations on which coolies (a derogatory term referring to Chinese laborers) have worked, it appears that their immigration has not had good results. They are called lazy..."
Interesting that they are reported as lazy, but there is no mention of the mortal conditions under which they were expected to live, nor of the Korean women raped on the plantations, an element that would not be a great motivator to work.
The interesting list below shows how many Koreans there were on each plantation, as well as the owners of those plantations. If you look closely, there is a clear conflict of interests in the next-to-last owner who is also the Governor of the State of Yucatan. On the left are the names of the plantation owners, next come the names of the plantation, the third column is the total number of workers on each corresponding hacienda and, finally, the total number of women and children on each.
At the end it reads "Koreans dead 22", then, "Lost 27", "Total immigrant arrived 1018"
In 1908, a memo (below) is sent out by the Secretary of State. It reads as follows:
FIRST SECTION
Dated the first of the current month, it informs this Secretary of Foreign Relations:
"The Minister of Japan in this Capital, tells me in a note dated August 19, the following:
I have the honor of bringing to your Excellency's attention that I have received a letter fron the Japanese General Consul in San Francisco, California, in which me informs me that he read an article in "The Denver Republican", a newspaper that is published in Denver, Colorado, United States of America, regarding the bad treatment which Koreans in Yucatan are subjected to and whose extract is as follows: "KOREAN COOLIES TREATED LIKE SLAVES IN MEXICO. 300 or 400 Koreans are truly being treated like slaves in Mexico, and to protest against this, Koreans of the intellectual class residing in the United States, held a great meeting in Denver; however, all their efforts to rescue their miserable countrymen, who cannot even communicate with the outside world, have been in vain. The Koreans sent a commissioner to Yucatan to investigate the conditions of his fellow-Koreans and to contact them, but everything was impossible because he was under constant surveillance by government employees and even chased by the Mexicans themselves. So their Agent went to Yucatan and return to San Francisco having been unable to obtain information worth taking into consideration. The Koreans residing in the United States, whose number is currently four thousand, gathered funds, by subscription, as a last resort, to rescue the liberty of these poor people: but the amount they were able to collect was not enough for the endeavor, because in order to save 400 coolies, several thousand dollars would ne necessary, hence the matter did not have a positive outcome. These Koreans, to which "The Denver Republican" alludes, were brought to Mexico by a Japanese subject, by concession of the Government of Korea, almost four years ago and not by a Japanese company, since at that time, the agreement between Japan and Korea had not been signed yet and Japanese companies could not hire foreign emigrants. In accordance with the agreement I just mentioned, and whose text Your Excellency has in his power, sent by my predecessor in his note number 8 of December 13, 1905, the duty to protect the Koreans compels me to beg Your Excellency, most respectfully, to request that the local authority in Yucatan provide me with the following information:
I. Total number of Korean coolies.
II. Average pay each Korean receives from the plantation owner.
III. Number of hours of daily work.
IV. Medical status of the coolies.
V. Treatment they receive from the owners of the plantations, in regards to food, clothing, etc., etc.
VI. Living expenses.
VII. Number of deaths so far and the main cause.
I send Your Excellency sincere gratitude for this information which I have here requested that you obtain from the Governor of Yucatan, information which is required by the Japanese Legation and this Secretariat."
This is yet another clear scramble on behalf of the government to cover up their dirty work.
Despite the prospect of living the rest of their lives in Mexico, this group of immigrants still considered themselves Korean and supported an independence movement for a land they last knew as sovereign. Their racial/ethnic encounters with mestizaje in Mexico shaped their identity(...)
With no savings they couldn’t return to Korea even when their contract ended. Some tried their luck by going to Cuba and working in sugar plantations but with over-production of sugar and the subsequent decrease in sugar prices, they were forced back to Mexico once again. This certainly wasn’t what was promised to them but even with their bitter disappointment and frustrations, they had to learn to cope and adapt to this new land. So they began to settle down around Merida and beyond, and built a life here in Mexico.
Article 30 of the 1917 Mexican Constitution was pivotal for the second generation of Korean immigrants (...) it offered Mexican nationality by birth on Mexican territory and extended Mexican nationality by naturalization. José Sánchez Pac, born on the Ilford, would go on to write in "Memorias de la vida y obra de los coreanos en México desde Yucatán" (written about 80 years after the 1905 immigration) (...) noted this gratitude, however, alongside the suffering of the immigrants. It is a bittersweet moment: the forced labor conditions of the Koreans from 1905 to 1909 helped to forge strong bonds among the immigrants, and they created an independent community for themselves with ties to the international
Korean independence movement.
We received the photo below from Esther Sanguesa. It shows a small army of Koreans in El Bolo, Matanzas, Cuba, ready to travel to fight for freedom in their motherland. In the end, they were not allowed to travel. She told us this is her grandfather's favorite photo. Proof of the international nature of the Korean independence movement.
KOREAN IMMIGRANTS AND RACISM
Koreants were treated differently from mixed-raced Mexicans and indigenous people from the beginning. (...) The "meztizo" (people of European and Indigenous mixed-race) nationalism was anti-asian and excluded Koreans (...) Anti-asian racism was more subtle in the Korean domestic sphere. On plantations, food rations consisted of corn, not rice. Corn was not appropriate nourishment (...) it caused intestinal problems in Koreans. This led to the latter protesting, demanding rice and basic medicine. When they realized the deplorable conditions in which Koreans were living, the plantation administrations ordered rice to be sold in the hacienda store. Pac tells an anecdote to illustrate the difficult this new life was for Koreans in Mexico, even in terms of nourishment. The women had trouble finding ingredients to make kimchi. The cabbage was planted exclusively for decorative purposes on many plantations and the person in charge of the orchard would cut them and get rid of the "ugly" pieces. The Korean women would use these discarded pieces to make kimchi. The plantations would sometimes distribute meat to the workers. The Korean women would gather the tails, heads, feet and intestines because they could use them for cooking. This is why Korean women were derrogatively called "bitches".
EDUCATION & THE REASON WHY OUR SECOND GENERATION ANCESTORS WERE NOT TAUGHT TO SPEAK KOREAN
Despite continuing their culinary traditions, the immigrants did not transmit their linguistic traditions. In a documentary that includes an interview with descendant Genny Song, she says that Yucatecos and Mexicans constantly harrassed Koreans (she is the one who makes this distinction) because they could not speak Spanish, so they made it a point to teach their children that it was better to learn Spanish, instead. Apparently, there were remnants of the persistence and ability to adapt, as Ana Maria Song can attest to as she speaks using food-related terms in Korean.
(...) At home, smaller put equally impactful choices were made, choices that reproduced a Korean sub-group. A combination of traditions was transmitted generationally that reflect a "Koreanness" through these adaptations (...) The need to eat rice instead of corn was a dividing factor among Koreans and other populations in Yucatan. The language barriers hindered Koreans from having greater access and assimilation to Mexico. However, these same challenges created opportunities to join a Korean immigrant community in its organization for the liberation of Korea.
(...) They did not only live in conditions of poverty under contracts that they considered they had been tricked into signing, they also had to face racism. The status of Koreans in Mexico was marginal and subject to Mexican exclusion of those who did not belong to the "mestizo" model (...) Whether maintaining a deep sense of patriotism towards Mexico played an important role in Korean's choice to obtain citizenship is questionable. After all, they had suffered anti-asian racism and exclusion from the mestizo state. But what other choice did these immigrants have? Acquiring Mexican citizenship enabled Koreans to access an larger International community of Korean expatriates who were fighting for Korean Liberation. Besides, continuing without legal residence in Mexico would make mobility, employment and access to state services even more difficult. In the end, intense pressure both from the Korean state and the Mexican state, probably compelled them to become a part of the Mexican state in order to support the Korean Nation.
Another political/legal method through which Korean immigrants in Mexico formed a unique community was through their collection of funds for the Korean liberation. Pac mentions a communal commitment by the Korean immigrants regarding fund raising. The intimate ties between the immigrant and the fact that sharing the little money the had for the liberation of Korea, although notable, was not solely a patriotic effort. Through their "national mandatory fee", the immigrants sent half of the funds collected to the independence movement, while the other half was used for local association activities; each member paid one peso per month.
(...) Pac tells that the Association had about 900 active members, in other words, a total of 900 pesos was collected and approximately 450 pesos were their collaboration to the Pan-Korean Association and the promotion of the revolution for independence (...) the Association was a sort of government for the Koreans. This perespective explains how membership to the association for a Korean immigrant was not only a way of belonging to a community, but a kind of citizenship and a sense of belonging to a nation.
(...) Korean productivity in Mexico was valuable both for the Mexican economy and for the liberation movement (...) I suggest that this productivity, accompanied by exclusion, led to further separation from a sense of belonging to Mexico.
Oral history from the descendants speaks of a strong cultural tradition among the immigrants, as well as diligent efforts to make clear their ethnic identity as Korean, not Chinese, not Japanese, nor Filipino. Pac shares an anecdote in which he asked for work at a restaurant in Villa Hermosa and the owner asked if he was Filipino. Pac replied: "I was born in Mexico but I am Korean." It is clear that Korean immigrants maintained a sense of belonging to the Korean Nation. Even though they had obtained access to the Mexican state, culturally they cultivated their Korean ethnic identity.
(...) Intergenerationally, knowledge was lost and was subject to the distortions of time and memory. Environmental influences surrounding the Koreans also made preservation of Korean heritage difficult in Mexico.
The Korean Association of Yucatan established an Ohakgina on May 26, 1913. The first of several schools built to teach "minjok awareness" (awareness of Korean ethnicity and nationalism). Pac details his educational experience on an henequen plantation. Korean immigrants established a board of education within the Korean Association of Yucatan with the purpose of educating illiterate adults and the children. The Association faced several challenges: 1) there was no formal teacher for Korean language classes and 2) parents would be further burdened economically (teachers had to be paid). It was decided that they would name a temporary teacher, Changi Cho, and that his post would be concurrent with his role as secretary of the Korean Association of Merida.
The educational system was based on the Korean system, with Korean language and Hangul writing at the core, as well as hanmun. Usually, a Korean school on a plantation had two teachers, one for arithmetic and another for Hangul. The program also included lessons on support for the homeland, history, the four hierarchy system (samin, yangban, etc.), physical education and hymns.
The system on the plantations made students and teachers have classes between 2 and 4 in the morning and, again, at around six in the afternoon for two hours. Pac also remembers the corporal punishment received if one did not learn as expected. This schedule meant that students had to combine long and arduous days of work with school homework, which often led to them not being able to finish their assignments.
The Sungmu Military School
Kunyong Lee created a Suk-Mu Kak Kyo on November 14, 1910. It was based on the reaction in Korea to the Japanese colonization and the National Enlightenment Movement that used Sungmu Awareness to illustrate the people (...) the National Enlightenment Movement held that the reason for the fall of Korea was partly due to the reverence (of the imperial government) for the military force of the great world powers, while suppressing/controlling the Korean military.
Sungmuism spread to other Korean communities abroad, including Merida. Men who had been soldiers in the Kwangmu Army were part of the community of Korean immigrants in Mexico, approximately 200 of them. When the tendency towards Sungmuism arrived at the Yucatan Peninsula, men who had been in the military met in three places in order to discuss the fall of their homeland and prepare volunteer martyrs to fight for Korean liberation. In order to train these men, they would have daily practice for 1 or 2 hours in military strategy and gymnastics during their rest time.
José Sánchez Pac also mentions that 25 young Koreans, under the leadership of Kŭnyŏng Lee, participated in the 1910 Mexican Revolution.
Sánchez Pac, José. “Memorias de la vida y obra de los coreanos en México desde Yucatán“ (Memories of the Life and Work of the Koreans in Mexico from Yucatan).
https://dreamgolive.wordpress.com/2011/10/28/koreans-in-mexico/
Editorial Board. August 2021. Crossing Peninsulas: Early 20th-Century Korean Flexible Nationalisms in the Yucatán Peninsula. The Yale Review of International Studies.
Jo, Nam Hwan. “Historia de la vida de los coreanos en México, 1905–2005.” (History of Koreans in Mexico). Los Angeles: The Christian Herald USA, 2006.
KBS Docu 다큐. “한국인의밥상] 멕시코 에네켄의 밥상: 밥이 조국이다". La Mesa del Henequén en México: La Comida es la Tierra Natal (The Table of the Henequen in Mexico: Food is the Motherland). Full VOD YouTube video, Mayo 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L2V3v8-dZL8.
Kim, AJ. “Yo Soy Coreana (2018): Migración e Historia de la Inmigración en Mëxico” (I am Korean: Migration and History of the Immigrant in Mexico) YouTube. October 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADHD2QG0pjQ&t=662s.